0:00

Hello,

0:14

and welcome to the History of Philosophy in

0:17

China, by Peter Adamson and Karen Lai, brought

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to you with the support of the Philosophy Department

0:21

at King's College London and the LMU in Munich,

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online at historyofphilosophy.net. Today's

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episode, Confucius Says,

0:30

Reading the Analects. In

0:34

the Analects, Kongzi is sometimes polite,

0:36

sometimes fussy, sometimes judgmental, sometimes fickle,

0:39

and sometimes humorous, just like any

0:41

one of us. Because

0:43

the Analects is a compilation of anecdotes

0:46

of Kongzi's conversations with others, as we've

0:48

heard in the last episode, it gives

0:50

us a multifaceted image of the man

0:52

as presented by the early followers of

0:54

the tradition. This means

0:56

we will not be able to know what

0:58

Kongzi actually said, nor should we think that

1:00

the Analects holds a single philosophical point of

1:02

view. Yet the text

1:05

is invaluable in providing glimpses of

1:07

key elements of the early Confucian

1:09

tradition. It is also

1:11

important as it sets the stage for a

1:13

Confucian vision of a flourishing community, a

1:15

view that continues to be debated

1:18

and indeed reinvented today. The

1:21

followers of Kongzi would have had, or

1:23

were at least interested in having, positions

1:25

as officials in the courts of rulers

1:27

and important dignitaries. They

1:29

held a range of administrative responsibilities in

1:31

government, and they also provided advice to

1:34

rulers on how to manage a large

1:36

variety of challenging situations. These

1:38

might include periods of drought, famine,

1:41

widespread crime, and the threat of

1:43

invasion from more powerful states. The

1:45

Confucians were known as the ru,

1:47

or literati, known for their

1:50

learning, which undergirds moral uprightness and

1:52

ritually appropriate behavior. Their

1:54

vision centers on the moral accountability of men

1:56

in positions of power, who would lead the

1:58

people, in Chinese, mean, especially

2:01

with their exemplary moral lives. At

2:04

first glance, this seems to support a

2:06

message of moral optimism and progressiveness, as

2:08

it holds leaders to account. But

2:10

we need to place this view in its

2:13

historical and intellectual context, when the vast majority

2:15

of the mean would not have had access

2:17

to a range of sources of information. Some

2:20

important considerations arise here, and we raise two

2:22

of them. First, who holds

2:24

the leader to account, and second, what

2:26

is the role of the people, or

2:28

mean, in the political sphere? These

2:31

two questions are interconnected, as they center on

2:33

how the lives of the people are conceived.

2:36

A passage in The Analects expresses a rather

2:38

dim view of the capacities of the ordinary

2:41

or common people, as the word mean is

2:43

often translated. Kongsu said, the

2:45

mean can be made to follow away, but they

2:48

cannot be made to understand it. In

2:50

this passage, there is no expectation that the people

2:53

are able to contribute to the moral life of

2:55

society. Needless to say, this

2:57

also means that the people lack the capacity

2:59

to hold their leaders to account. This

3:02

view is in some ways even worse than

3:04

one that simply forbids political participation on the

3:06

part of the people. It says

3:08

explicitly that the people are not capable

3:10

of participating. Although

3:12

this is only one cryptic anecdote in

3:15

The Analects, scholars have often noted the

3:17

paternalism in the Confucian view concerning the

3:19

respective roles of the government and the

3:21

people. Yet, as the

3:23

scholar William Theodore DeBarre reminds us,

3:25

the idealized figure of the Sage

3:28

King, a paradigm of kingly virtue,

3:30

predated Kongsu and the Confucian tradition.

3:33

As DeBarre says, the idea of

3:35

the Sage King was a Chinese reality

3:37

before it became a Confucian myth. We

3:40

first encounter this image of the Sagely

3:42

Rule in an early text, the Book

3:44

of Documents, or the Shüqing, one

3:46

of the Confucian Five Classics, as we also heard

3:49

in the last episode. In

3:51

the Shüqing, the Sage King, Yao,

3:53

was said to be, Reverend Intelligent,

3:55

accomplished, sincere and mild. He

3:57

was genuinely respectful and capable of all the things he did.

4:00

modesty. His light spread over

4:02

the four extremities of the world, extending

4:04

to heaven above and the earth below.

4:07

And so the passage goes on,

4:09

telling readers how, because of Yao's

4:11

rule, the numerous peoples were amply

4:13

nourished, prospered, and became harmonious. Statements

4:17

of the untouchable power of leaders are found in

4:19

other passages in the Analects, where Kong Tzu is

4:21

meant to have said, "...one who

4:24

rules through the power of virtue is analogous

4:26

to the pole star. It simply

4:28

remains in its place and receives the homage

4:30

of the myriad lesser stars." Here

4:33

virtue is a translation of the word dù,

4:36

for the early Confucians, dù, referred to

4:38

a general conception of moral goodness that

4:40

is expressed in a person's behaviors and

4:42

actions, just as Yao's virtues are

4:45

displayed in his undertakings. And

4:47

Nabari raises concern about this, dating,

4:49

"...the sage king stands alone, unchallenged

4:52

and unchecked, except by self-imposed

4:54

restraints." That

4:56

the Analects offers more than the belief in

4:58

the sage king's indisputable authority found in earlier

5:00

texts. Nabari demonstrates this

5:02

difference by focusing on the idea of

5:05

heaven's mandate. In earlier texts,

5:07

this phrase referred to the rightful rule of

5:09

the king as decreed by heaven, the

5:11

ground of all morality, including especially

5:13

for humankind. However, the

5:15

early Confucians, troubled by the declining order

5:17

during the spring and autumn period, had

5:20

to revisit and address the course of

5:22

heaven's mandate. For them,

5:24

heaven's mandate became an individual

5:26

mission. The followers of Confu, the

5:28

Eru, believed that they were personally charged

5:31

with a mission of a commitment to

5:33

humankind as expressed in public service. The

5:36

relevant model for these men is an

5:38

exemplary person engaged in public office who

5:40

might hold their superior to account when

5:42

necessary. The

5:45

challenge to authority, including when and how one

5:47

might present a dissenting view, is voiced in

5:49

different ways in the Analects. Perhaps

5:52

in spite of Confu saying that he was

5:54

only a transmitter, the Analects offers a new

5:56

idea of the Xun Tzu. Here,

5:58

the Xun Tzu is a morally cultivated scholar-official

6:00

who acts as a counterbalance to

6:03

the unchecked power of the ruler.

6:05

The responsibilities of this position often

6:07

present significant predicaments. The shuntze

6:09

needed to gain the trust of the ruler before

6:11

he could point out his mistakes. One

6:14

of Kongtze's followers, Tsitsiya, is deeply aware

6:17

of the complexities of this position. In

6:20

Book 19 of the Analects where Tsitsiya is

6:22

the speaker in some of the passages, we

6:24

can sense the difficulties faced by these men.

6:27

Following the precariousness of the position of

6:29

these officials, he says that they must

6:31

maintain greatness, yi, and be prepared

6:34

to sacrifice their life. Tsitsiya

6:36

voices his worries about how it can be

6:38

a struggle for an official to draw a

6:40

line between being a yes-man and standing too

6:43

firmly on his principles. On

6:45

the other hand, a comment from Kongtze

6:47

in the Analects is more lighthearted. He

6:49

advises against dotting every i and crossing

6:51

every t and serving one superior. Whittily,

6:54

he remarks that, if in serving your lord

6:56

you are careful to observe every detail of

6:59

ritual propriety, people will think you are groveling.

7:02

On another occasion, he says, in a more

7:04

serious tone about service of one superior, do

7:07

not deceive him, oppose him openly. It

7:10

seems that Kongtze could not be more serious

7:12

about robust disagreement with a superior when he

7:14

warns that a state could perish if a

7:16

ruler who has said something bad goes unopposed.

7:19

In these few conversations, the Analects

7:21

takes remonstration as their primary responsibility

7:24

of the Tsitsiya. So

7:26

the Tsitsiya is not trying to win a

7:28

popularity contest. To the contrary, he

7:31

needs to distinguish himself morally. While remaining

7:33

harmonious with others, he does not seek

7:35

merely to agree with them. This

7:38

fits with the nagging worry that his contributions

7:40

might be undervalued. The number

7:42

of passages express Kongtze's disappointment regarding how

7:44

his messages fell on deaf ears and

7:46

how he might not remain in employment

7:49

as a result. The

7:51

Kongtze figure in the Analects lives up

7:53

to the responsibility of remonstration, so perhaps

7:55

he was too judgmental to have a

7:57

long career as an influential courtier. We

8:00

are told that Kongsu despaired of ever seeing

8:02

a sage, which along with other statements in

8:04

the Analects, can be taken as an implicit

8:07

criticism of the rulers of his time. He

8:10

did not hold back when criticism was due, calling

8:12

out a senior official and holding him to account

8:14

for the disorder in the state of Lu, Kongsu's

8:17

home state. This

8:19

official had come to seek Kongsu's advice

8:21

on government, expressing his particular concern about

8:23

the widespread thieving in his state. Kongsu

8:26

replied sharply, if you could just get

8:28

rid of your own excessive desires, the

8:30

people would not steal, even if you

8:33

rewarded them for it. What

8:36

was the basis of such judgments? In

8:38

other words, which principles was Kongsu working

8:40

with? Or in yet other words, which

8:42

values were important to the early Confucians?

8:46

Might it have been a general concern for the people?

8:48

Or for a fair distribution of goods?

8:50

Or a sense of obligation? Or integrity?

8:53

Or virtue? The conversations

8:55

in the Analects prioritize certain facets of

8:57

what we call morality, but none

8:59

of its references to values or principles

9:02

are systematic, such as to explain their

9:04

reasoning or justification processes. Still,

9:07

across different passages, we do find a

9:09

stress on the fundamental word, brain, which

9:11

denotes the ways in which humans uniquely relate

9:13

to each other. It

9:15

is frequently translated as benevolence, to express

9:18

the concern humans have for the welfare

9:20

of others. In a

9:22

slightly later Confucian text, Imonze, which we will

9:24

discuss in a future episode, Ren is seen

9:26

as an aspect of the moral nature that

9:28

humans have in common. The

9:30

Analects does not specify the source of Ren,

9:33

although it is emphatic that we should embody

9:35

Ren in our moral lives. That

9:37

is, if our actions stem from a concern

9:39

about the welfare of others, society will flourish.

9:42

This is possible only if people are themselves

9:44

motivated to follow the Confucian now. That

9:48

view of a thriving moral society is

9:50

contrasted with one in which punishment and

9:52

litigiousness proliferate. them

10:00

in line with punishments, they will become evasive and

10:02

will have no sense of shame. If,

10:04

however, you guide them with virtue and lead

10:06

them with ritual propriety, they will have a

10:08

sense of shame and will rectify themselves. Here,

10:12

kongzi is not merely comparing methods

10:14

for facilitating good order. These

10:16

are two very different cultures. One

10:19

encourages conformism and the avoidance of

10:21

punishment, while the other, Confucian culture,

10:23

promotes moral growth. Being

10:26

forced to ensure compliant behavior does not

10:28

help people inculcate a sense of moral

10:30

responsibility. Kongzi's dismissals

10:32

of facile talkers, who were

10:35

adept at rationalizing their conduct,

10:37

highlight the incompatibility of facile talk and

10:40

harm. By contrast,

10:42

the Confucian proposal seeks an idealized

10:44

world where litigation is not required,

10:47

and moreover, where capital punishment is eliminated

10:49

because people are swayed by the positive

10:51

moral influence of a morally good leader.

10:54

This inspirational approach to moral leadership looks

10:56

to be in some tension with the

10:59

rather paternalistic attitudes we discussed before. While

11:02

it might be possible to reconcile them,

11:04

the more appropriate approach to passages that

11:06

may seem incompatible is to recognize the

11:08

variety of views expressed in the Analects,

11:11

that it is a text that speaks of a

11:13

tradition rather than of the views of the tradition's

11:15

founder, Kongzi. In

11:18

addition to broad and varied views of

11:20

benevolence, many conversations in the Analects discuss

11:22

the practicalities of human interactions. These

11:25

include considerations about how to treat parents

11:27

respectfully, how to serve a higher official

11:29

or the ruler himself, under

11:31

what circumstances one may remonstrate with him,

11:34

when to speak authoritatively, and what is

11:36

required in one's interactions with the mean.

11:40

Decisions about how best to interact with others

11:42

and respond to circumstances will vary from one

11:44

situation to the next. This

11:47

reasoning style reflects the nature of the conversations

11:49

in the Analects. In

11:51

one occasion, for example, Kongzi comments that

11:53

a young man working for him is

11:55

inappropriately taking the seat of an adult

11:58

and walking among adults as if he were equal. equal to them.

12:01

Kong-su remarks that this young man is after

12:03

quick results. This young man

12:05

hasn't properly positioned himself in relation to those

12:07

who are senior. The

12:10

idea of acting fittingly, of appropriately orienting

12:12

oneself in one's interactions with others is

12:14

an important part of Confucian life and

12:17

one with modern parallels. For

12:19

instance, our behavior, tone of voice, actions, gestures,

12:21

and language on a night out with friends

12:23

at a pub will be quite different to

12:25

a situation where we're conversing with a friend

12:27

about their marriage problems. The

12:31

Analects discusses practices that help people express

12:33

themselves well in a range of contexts

12:35

and as they stand in relation to others. For

12:38

example, Kong-su tells us how we can treat

12:40

parents respectfully. When your parents

12:43

are alive, serve them in accordance with propriety.

12:45

When they pass away, bury them in

12:48

accordance with propriety and sacrifice to them

12:50

in accordance with propriety. In

12:53

the passage on how we interact with parents,

12:55

the word translated as propriety is li, which

12:58

may refer to many aspects of our

13:00

behavior, including gestures and comments, practices that

13:02

are part of our social life, such

13:04

as greeting others, and common courtesies, such

13:06

as showing deference to an elderly person.

13:09

Li refers generally, then, to how we

13:11

interact with others with consideration and rectitude.

13:14

Li also operates in more formal settings,

13:16

such as at a funeral. In

13:19

that context, we can think of li

13:21

as ritual propriety. In

13:23

casual settings, li may seem more like etiquette.

13:26

The philosopher Amy Olberding, in fact, believes

13:28

that li may be understood as good

13:30

manners and etiquette norms. But

13:32

if so, this would be a kind of good

13:35

manners and etiquette that are not optional. For

13:37

the Confucians, Olberding says, being

13:40

well-mannered is essential to being a

13:42

good person. And this is one way

13:44

in which reading Confucian philosophy can help us grow

13:46

our moral lives. Confucian is

13:48

indeed committed to the view that a

13:50

good person acts or behaves well, and

13:53

also that good conduct contributes to our

13:55

moral lives. He says

13:57

that a person who is not benevolent has nothing to

13:59

do with propriety. This

14:01

statement is effectively an argument against those

14:03

who focus merely on having the right

14:05

behaviors. As we have

14:07

seen, gong-suh ridicules those who fixate on

14:09

getting every little thing exactly right. Focusing

14:13

only on behavior can lead to

14:15

frustration and anxiety rather than contribute

14:17

to our moral development. D

14:21

is often coupled with music, especially

14:23

in ritual ceremonies. It was

14:25

not unusual at this time to expect coherence

14:27

in ritual, dress, dance, and music in a

14:29

ceremony. These would fittingly underpin the

14:32

reference at that ceremony. Lee

14:34

and music also share something else in

14:36

common. They are both two-sided with a

14:39

performative element and an expressive element. Gong-suh

14:42

asks a rhetorical question that highlights the

14:44

importance of not just attending to the

14:46

performative element. When we

14:49

say the rights, the rights, Lee, are

14:51

we speaking merely of jade and silk?

14:54

When we say music, music, are we speaking

14:56

merely of bells and drums? Here

14:59

again is an emphatic denial that polished behaviors

15:01

are all that is needed. At

15:04

some ritual ceremonies, no expense was spared,

15:06

and expensive embellishments such as jade and

15:08

silk were used. But just

15:10

as music can be performed unfeelingly,

15:12

the performative aspect of ritual may

15:15

be carried out flawlessly but devoid

15:17

of any accompanying moral feeling. One

15:21

maintains the importance of emotional engagement in

15:23

our undertakings and interactions with others. This

15:26

comes up in relation to his comments on

15:28

Tsai-woo, whom we have already met in the

15:30

last episode. Tsai-woo was a

15:32

follower from whom Gong-suh had little regard. His

15:35

attempt to do away with the three-year

15:37

mourning period for one's parents is presented

15:39

with arguments that, to refrain from practicing

15:41

Lee for three years, which was a

15:44

requirement during the mourning period, would result

15:46

in a deterioration of Lee. Presumably,

15:49

the Lee of mourning takes precedence,

15:51

overriding the requirement for the practice

15:53

of other ritual proprieties. Someone

15:56

Experiencing grief is not looking to socialize, at

15:58

least not to the ex- That they normally

16:00

would. As far as like

16:02

whoa was concerned, one year is plenty long enough

16:04

for the morning Parent. He. Offered the

16:07

analogy that after a year, the old grain

16:09

has been used up while the new grain

16:11

has ripened. Such. Arguments

16:13

would have been taken as a form of

16:16

the fact I'll talk with cancer detested. In

16:18

his response cancer causing a question front

16:21

sight well. Would. You feel comfortable

16:23

after a year eating your sweet rice

16:25

and wearing your brocade gowns. A.

16:27

Person who drives appropriately would not feel comfortable

16:30

but site whoa sticks to his guns and

16:32

answers i what. The

16:34

question of whether one feel comfortable is

16:36

important for cancer because it is the

16:38

emotional commitment that counts and not merely

16:40

the right behaviors. Thus, Com Food

16:43

is not attempt to instruct I both to

16:45

follow the three year requirements as he could

16:47

have. Instead, as we mentioned last time,

16:49

he tells that both. Well. As he was,

16:51

you're comfortable doing so, then by all means you should do

16:53

it. Which. He then follows with dismissive

16:56

remarks about Cyborg once he has departed.

16:59

Nor. Is just the only passage were site

17:01

whoa comes in for criticism. This.

17:03

Is why it's a good idea to be the editor

17:05

of the text, preserving your masters' ideas in remarks. That

17:07

way you can be sure not to be held up

17:09

as a bad example. In

17:12

another passage, concert compares I Woke with

17:14

Rotten Would because he sleeps during the

17:16

deck. Presumably the point is that

17:18

he is not diligence. Of

17:20

the also knows that he has learned from

17:22

his interaction with sidewalk that he's not only

17:25

listen to what others say, but also deserve

17:27

what they do. Perhaps.

17:30

Than if cancer did not have such a low

17:32

opinion of this disciple, he might have tried to

17:34

persuade him to reflect on the practice of mourning.

17:36

For. Reflection see is an essential part

17:39

of life or the process for developing

17:41

an understanding of what to say. You're.

17:44

Interacting with others and absorbing their ways

17:46

and then reflecting on one's encounters. The.

17:49

Idea of reflection has an important

17:51

opiate underdeveloped place in the philosophy

17:53

of the analects. Doesn't.

17:56

Often quoted phrase in the out x

17:58

that in learning without reflecting one. The

18:00

last and that first night without

18:02

learning is perilous. We.

18:04

May take a bit learning in the

18:07

process of acquiring information about practices. We

18:09

can do this by reading books such as

18:11

the of the sponsors as. Or

18:13

by conversing with those who have similar

18:15

moral commitments, the learning about customs and

18:17

studying how sages acted. Starting the

18:20

behavior of others and to our interactions.

18:22

But. These are details which need to

18:25

be organized and prioritize true reflection.

18:28

On. The other had simply to reflect

18:30

without experiences and examples of praiseworthy

18:32

and blame where the behavior is

18:34

a pointless exercise. More. Than

18:36

that, it is even perilous. Perhaps because it

18:38

could lead to an anything goes approach to

18:40

life. Is. Difficult to

18:43

say anything more definite about the notion

18:45

of reflection in the analects, but it

18:47

is a concept that is central to

18:49

neo confusion thought, which would emerge centuries

18:51

after the compilation for the analects, The.

18:54

Commitment of the analects to a reflective

18:56

moral life is no to briefly but

18:59

evocatively and com to comment. The Village

19:01

Worthy is the thief of virtue. In.

19:04

His comments on this passage Edwards to

19:06

Amazon's out the Picture on the suspect

19:08

character. He. Notes that the months

19:10

at a slightly later Confucian Taxed takes

19:12

up the specific issue. The.

19:14

Monster Account pitchers Cancer who expresses

19:17

exactly why he holds the Village

19:19

worthy and has. Cancer.

19:21

Says I despise the village worthy for

19:23

fear that he will be mistaken for

19:25

one who truly possesses virtue. In.

19:28

The months of the Village where the is described

19:30

as a person who seeks to curry favor with

19:32

his contemporaries and make sure that no one can

19:35

fault him for anything he does. Such.

19:37

Men are in play on words,

19:39

false prophets and counterfeits. They.

19:41

Seek to be renowned to be liked by

19:44

off. Precisely. The sort

19:46

of popularity contest answer with a. Philosopher

19:50

when he song characterizes The Village Worthy

19:52

as a kind of hypocrites. And

19:54

appearance only hypocrite because he pretends to be

19:56

what he is not. What?

19:58

is particularly if about such

20:01

hypocrites, some argues, is that in

20:03

addition to denying themselves a chance

20:05

to develop morally, their deception threatens

20:07

moral systems. In

20:09

societies where morality is quite

20:11

compromised, village-worthies can sow confusion

20:13

with their flippant displays of

20:15

supposed virtue. In

20:18

contrast to the village-worthy's disregard for

20:20

morality, Gong Tzu takes great care,

20:22

even with everyday tasks and in

20:24

ordinary contexts. For example, when

20:27

eating with a person in mourning, he never ate

20:29

his fill, and he would never sing on a

20:31

day when he had wept. Book

20:33

10 of the Analects contains many anecdotes, mainly

20:36

about Gong Tzu. In

20:38

this book, Gong Tzu is presented as thoughtful about

20:40

the ways he expresses himself and how he comes

20:42

across to others. There

20:44

are passages in which his choices are common-sensical,

20:46

such as his consideration of food safety and

20:48

hygiene. He would not eat food that

20:51

had soured or discolored and was careful about food

20:53

that had been kept overnight. That's

20:55

more good advice, it's a good idea to edit the

20:57

contents of your pantry and not just your books. He's

21:01

also concerned about his interactions with others, such

21:03

as getting dressed with an outer garment when

21:05

leaving the house. He would

21:07

conduct himself appropriately in court, for instance by not

21:09

standing in the middle of a doorway. Attending

21:12

a village drinking ceremony, he would leave only after

21:14

the elders had done so, and when

21:17

sending his regards to someone in another state, he

21:19

would bow twice to the messenger and then see

21:21

him off. These

21:23

actions may seem pedantic, making Gong Tzu look

21:26

as if his life was ruled by ritual.

21:29

But as we have seen, the Gong

21:31

Tzu of the Analects is emphatic that

21:33

vain expressions of formulaic propriety are worth

21:35

little. Gong Tzu is

21:37

not a village worthy. His

21:39

behaviors and preoccupations are motivated by his

21:41

awareness of his place within society and

21:43

his consideration for others. In

21:46

discussing the last example of his conduct

21:48

we just mentioned, where he bows twice

21:50

to the messenger, Slingerland explains that the

21:52

double bow was to express respect to

21:54

the acquaintance to whom he was sending

21:57

the complimentary regards, which usually included some

21:59

sort of gift. Here

22:01

we see the expression of Kongtze's

22:03

one word or one thread, that

22:06

is, reciprocity or mutuality. Book

22:09

10 of the Analects has often been ignored

22:11

by scholars because of its focus on the

22:13

minutiae of Kongtze's life. There is

22:15

not much there that seems philosophical. We

22:18

by contrast would propose that it is an important

22:20

part of the message of the Analects and one

22:22

that gives us valuable insight into the figure of

22:24

Kongtze. The early

22:26

followers of Kongtze, those who had a hand in

22:28

compiling the Analects, would have been keen not only

22:30

to present what he said, but also to give

22:32

impressions of the kind of person he was. That

22:36

his actions were aligned with his words is an

22:38

overarching theme. Consistent

22:40

with his contempt for facile talk, he

22:42

constantly reminds his followers that speech is

22:44

central to moral life. They

22:46

should be careful in speech and they should act

22:48

before they speak. Which brings

22:50

us to the question of how we as contemporary readers

22:53

of the Analects can learn from it. Should

22:55

we act like Kongtze or should we speak as

22:57

he does? Neither. This

22:59

sort of mechanical approach would trivialize the significance

23:01

of the Analects for us. The

23:04

Kongtze of the Analects is situated in a

23:06

specific time and place. No

23:08

doubt Kongtze would be turning at his grave

23:11

if he thought that his words and actions

23:13

were used to prescribe how people, over two

23:15

thousand years later, were to conduct themselves. Instead,

23:18

we should take the Analects as a text

23:21

that shows us how the early Confucians attempted

23:23

to shape their society to make it more

23:25

morally self-aware. Although they

23:27

accorded much more authority to the leaders of society

23:29

than we now would, the Confucians

23:31

were also part of the conversation that

23:33

sought to implement accountability. Thus,

23:36

we should approach the text as an

23:38

opportunity to develop our own moral imaginations.

23:41

In the Analects, we find many examples of morality

23:43

in life rather than morality

23:45

theorized. Kongtze says,

23:47

find inspiration in the Odes, but we

23:50

can just as well find inspiration in

23:52

him. Between

23:55

this and the previous episode, you should now hopefully

23:57

feel like you have a good sense of the

23:59

Analects. what sort of text it is,

24:01

what some of its primary themes are, and

24:03

what sort of man Kung-se himself was, or

24:05

was presented as being. But we

24:07

have, of course, only scratched the surface. In

24:10

the episodes to come, we'll be looking at different

24:12

reactions that the text and the man produced, and

24:14

that in two senses. We will

24:16

consider the further developments that Confucianism saw

24:18

in authors like Monza and Shinza, of

24:20

course, but we'll also be talking about

24:22

much more recent takes on the Confucian

24:25

project, starting next time when we will

24:27

explore the idea that this project proposed

24:29

something called Role Ethics. The

24:31

idea here is that our moral duties are built

24:34

around the relationships we bear to other people, and

24:36

the roles those relationships create for us. To

24:39

be a good person is to be a good

24:41

parent, child, friend, and so on. This

24:44

turns out to be a more radical idea than

24:46

it sounds, as would become clear next time, as

24:48

the podcast rolls on, continuing to look

24:51

at the history of philosophy in China.

24:56

Thank you.